Chemistery

Pure water is supposed to be the definition of neutral. So why does a pH meter dipped into boiling distilled water read about 6.1 — and why is that water still neutral? The answer is one small constant that quietly underpins the entire pH scale. The short answer: Kw is the ion product of water , the equilibrium constant for water reacting with itself: Kw = [H₃O⁺][OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ at 25 °C . Because that product is fixed at a given temperature, knowing either ion concentration always gives you the other. Water reacts with itself Water is amphiprotic — it can donate a proton and accept one. Given enough molecules, some of them do both to each other: 2 H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + OH⁻ This is called autoionisation (or self-ionisation). It happens in every sample of water, and in every aqueous solution, all the time. It is just extremely rare: at 25 °C only about one water molecule in 555 million is ionised at any instant. The equilibrium constant for that reaction, with the solvent water fold...

Everyone learns "NaOH is strong, ammonia is weak" and then hits a question about 0.010 M NaOH versus 6 M ammonia and freezes. Which one has the higher pH? The answer needs the difference between strength and concentration — and this is the pair of words that decides it. The short answer: a strong base produces hydroxide ions essentially completely in water, so its OH⁻ concentration equals its concentration. A weak base only partly reacts, sitting at an equilibrium described by Kb , so its OH⁻ concentration is far lower than its concentration. Quick comparison at a glance Feature Strong base Weak base Behaviour in water Reacts/dissociates essentially completely Partly reacts; equilibrium Arrow used Single, → Double, ⇌ Kb Not applicable — it dissociates, it does not equilibrate with water Small and measurable [OH⁻] ≈ the base's concentration Much less than its concentration Typical pH of 0.10 M 13.0 ~11.1 Examples NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)₂...

"Strong" and "weak" are useful words right up to the moment someone asks how weak. Is hydrofluoric acid weaker than formic acid? By how much? That is what Ka is for: it turns a vague adjective into a number you can calculate with. The short answer: Ka , the acid dissociation constant , is the equilibrium constant for an acid giving up its proton to water. A larger Ka means a stronger acid — at the same concentration, more of it is ionised at equilibrium — and because the numbers are tiny, they are usually quoted as pKa = −log Ka , where a smaller pKa means a stronger acid . What Ka actually is Every weak acid in water sets up an equilibrium: HA + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + A⁻ Write the equilibrium expression for it and you get Ka: Ka = [H₃O⁺][A⁻] ÷ [HA] Water does not appear, even though it is a reactant. It is the solvent, present in enormous excess, and its concentration barely changes — so by convention it is folded into the constant rather than written out. Read th...

You write out a reaction, the mark scheme says "identify the conjugate base", and suddenly every species on the page looks like a candidate. The good news is that the answer is never a judgement call. There is a mechanical test, and it takes about three seconds. The short answer: a conjugate base is what is left of an acid after it donates a proton (H⁺); a conjugate acid is what a base becomes after it accepts one. The two members of a conjugate pair always differ by exactly one H⁺ — one hydrogen and one unit of charge — and nothing else. Quick comparison at a glance Feature Conjugate acid Conjugate base Formed by A base gaining H⁺ An acid losing H⁺ Change in formula One H added One H removed Change in charge More positive by 1 More negative by 1 Where to find it Opposite the base it came from Opposite the acid it came from Example NH₃ → NH₄⁺ CH₃COOH → CH₃COO⁻ Its own role Can donate that H⁺ back Can accept an H⁺ back What ...

Before 1892 the same compound might be called four different things in four different countries, and chemists genuinely could not be sure they were discussing the same substance. IUPAC nomenclature fixed that: a set of rules that turns any structure into exactly one name, and any name back into exactly one structure. The short answer: IUPAC nomenclature is the international system for naming chemical compounds unambiguously. For organic molecules it builds every name from three parts — a prefix listing the substituents, a root giving the longest carbon chain, and a suffix naming the main functional group — so the name is a set of assembly instructions. The anatomy of a name Take 2-methylbutan-1-ol and cut it apart: Piece What it says 2-methyl Prefix — a CH₃ branch on carbon 2 but Root — the main chain is 4 carbons long an All single bonds 1-ol Suffix — an –OH group on carbon 1 Read backwards and you can draw it without ever having seen the compound. That is the en...

Once you accept that one molecular formula can describe several compounds, the next question arrives immediately: how many kinds of difference are there? Two molecules can be built from the same atoms and differ in the wiring, or they can have identical wiring and differ only in how they sit in space. That split is the whole of isomer classification. The short answer: structural isomers have their atoms bonded together in a different order , while stereoisomers have exactly the same bonding order but a different arrangement in three-dimensional space. The quick test: list which atom is bonded to which for both molecules — if the lists differ it's structural, if they match it's stereo. Quick comparison at a glance Feature Structural isomers Stereoisomers Also called Constitutional isomers Configurational isomers What differs Which atom is bonded to which Spatial arrangement only Connectivity Different Identical Subtypes Chain, position, functional group Geometric...