Chemistery

You've drawn the Lewis structure. Every atom has its octet, the dots are all placed — and then the question asks for the shape, and suddenly it matters which pairs are which. Getting lone pairs and bonding pairs straight is the single step between a correct dot diagram and a correct molecular shape. The short answer: a bonding pair is a pair of electrons shared between two atoms, holding them together — it's what a line in a structural formula represents. A lone pair is a pair of electrons sitting on one atom only, bonded to nothing, and because it's held by a single nucleus it spreads out more and pushes harder on everything around it. Quick comparison at a glance Feature Bonding pair Lone pair Also called Shared pair, bond pair Non-bonding pair, unshared pair How many nuclei attract it Two One Shown in a structure as A line (or two dots between atoms) Two dots on a single atom Shape in space Pulled tight between two nuclei Fatter and closer to its own atom Rep...

You have an equilibrium. You poke it. Which way does it move? There's one rule that answers this for every disturbance you'll be asked about, and it fits in a sentence. The short answer: Le Chatelier's principle states that if a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the position of equilibrium shifts in the direction that partially opposes the change. Add something and the system consumes some of it; heat it and it absorbs some of that heat. What "opposes the change" actually means The system doesn't undo the change — it can't. It partially offsets it. Add 1 mol of a reactant and the shift will use up some of that mol, so the new equilibrium has more of it than before, just less than 1 mol more. Think of it as pushing back, not resetting. The three disturbances 1. Concentration You do this Equilibrium shifts Because Add a reactant Right (towards products) To use some of it up Remove a reactant Left To replace some of it Add a product Left To...

Diamond is not the most stable form of carbon. Graphite is. Every diamond on Earth is slowly, inevitably turning into pencil lead — and will finish somewhere around the heat death of the universe. That gap between should and does is the whole of this post. The short answer: thermodynamics tells you whether a reaction is energetically favourable and how far it will go; kinetics tells you how fast it gets there. A reaction can be thermodynamically favourable and kinetically impossible at room temperature — which is why diamonds survive. Quick comparison at a glance Feature Thermodynamics Kinetics Question answered Will it happen? How far? How fast will it happen? Key quantities ΔH, ΔS, ΔG, K Rate, activation energy (Eₐ) Depends on Only the start and end states The pathway between them Shown on an energy profile by The difference in height between reactants and products The height of the hump Changed by a catalyst? No Yes Changed by temperature? Yes (ΔG and K both shift) ...

Equilibrium sounds like the reaction has stopped. It hasn't — and that misunderstanding costs more marks in this topic than anything else. The short answer: chemical equilibrium is the state a reversible reaction reaches in a closed system when the forward and reverse reactions are happening at the same rate , so the concentrations of everything stop changing. It is dynamic : both reactions continue indefinitely, they just cancel out. What "dynamic" actually means Picture a sealed flask. At the start there's only reactant, so the forward reaction is fast and the reverse can't happen at all. As product builds up, the forward rate falls (reactant is being used) and the reverse rate rises (there's now product to react back). Sooner or later the two rates meet. From that moment on, product is being made exactly as fast as it's being destroyed, so the amounts stay constant — even though, at the molecular level, nothing has slowed down at all. An analogy...

Burn a piece of paper and you cannot get the paper back. Heat blue copper(II) sulfate crystals until they turn white, add water, and the blue returns. Same subject, two completely different kinds of arrow. The short answer: an irreversible reaction goes essentially to completion in one direction and is written with a single arrow (→), while a reversible reaction proceeds in both directions at once, is written with a double half-arrow (⇌), and settles at an equilibrium containing both reactants and products. Quick comparison at a glance Feature Irreversible Reversible Arrow used → ⇌ Direction One way only, in practice Both ways simultaneously End state Reactants (or one of them) fully used up A mixture of reactants and products Reaches equilibrium? No Yes, in a closed system Can products re-form reactants? Not to any measurable extent Yes, continuously Typical examples Combustion, most precipitation, strong acid + strong base Haber process, hydrated salts, weak acid dissocia...

Every particle in a beaker of solution collides with its neighbours trillions of times a second. If every one of those collisions caused a reaction, everything would react instantly and chemistry would be over. It doesn't, and collision theory explains why. The short answer: collision theory says that for particles to react they must collide , and that a collision only works if it has (1) at least the activation energy and (2) the correct orientation . Collisions meeting both conditions are called successful or effective collisions, and they are a small minority. The two conditions Condition 1 — enough energy. Reactions have to break bonds before they can make new ones, and breaking bonds costs energy. The minimum a colliding pair must bring is the activation energy, Eₐ . Below that, the particles simply bounce apart unchanged, however many times they meet. Condition 2 — correct orientation. Molecules aren't featureless spheres. The reactive part has to be pointing the...